Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Our society is currently in a transition from an Industrial Age to an Information Age, resulting in changing societal institutions and job markets (Toffler, 1980). Educators need to respond by changing the curriculum and the infrastructure. Twigg (1994a) stated that graduates need to have "acquired skills such as critical thinking, quantitative reasoning, and effective communication along with ... an ability to find needed information and the ability to work with others". Although, Twigg was referring to graduates of post-secondary institutions, the same can be said of all students at all grade levels. Educators who have attempted to implement curriculum that reflects this kind of teaching have discovered that there are not sufficient resources, time or support to accomplish their goals. Networked computers incorporated into the curriculum may be one way to support this evolving curriculum (Mehlinger, 1995).
These kinds of changes are particularly needed in the mathematics curriculum. Curriculum reforms in mathematics over the last ten years have met with extensive resistance by the public, as evidenced by the ongoing debate over the California State standards. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) issued a set of standards requiring all students to become familiar with the branches of mathematics and to be able to communicate mathematically (1989). This report was published in reference to a report, The Underachieving Curriculum: Assessing U.S. School Mathematics from an International Perspective, in which it was found that students were not achieving as well as the international average (McCullough, 1991). NCTM went on to recommend that students be able to use the tools of mathematics, including computers and calculators, and to be able to discern mathematical patterns as a means of drawing inferences.
A curriculum in Chaos Theory allows students to meet many of the standards emphasized by NCTM, while requiring that students be familiar with the use of algorithmic processing. Chaos Theory is integrative, requires the use of computers to study the patterns in iterative processes, produces an understanding of linear and non-linear equations, and an understanding of graphing theory using both real and complex numbers in two and three dimensional planes (Gleick, 1987). Through computer simulations, students can experiment with the parameters in difference equations to simulate various real-life situations such as the stock market and weather and biological systems (Devaney, 1991). Mathematics becomes an experimental science, a discipline that is still evolving and making new discoveries.
This curriculum project has been developed and presented on the Internet primarily for two reasons:
1. to reach a larger audience
2. to take advantage of the numerous web sites on fractals and Chaos Theory.
Much of what is known about chaos and fractals is of recent origin and, consequently, these discoveries and information are changing rapidly (Gleick, 1987). The Internet can keep pace with these rapid changes. It also offers students a chance to view new discoveries. Finally, the fractals that are being designed rely on complex, non-linear equations that are best viewed with a computer.
Chaos Theory describes dynamic systems such as turbulence and oscillations, weather and biological systems, and the stock market. It is the result of studies begun by Edward Lorenz in the 1960s (Gleick, 1987). Lorenz was a meteorologist who used computers to simulate weather systems, using non-linear equations. He discovered, inadvertently, that small changes (as little as 1/1000) in the initial conditions produced dramatic changes in the overall system. This has been called the butterfly effect; if a butterfly flaps its wings in Brazil, hurricanes result in North America. This is why weather is so unpredictable.
Lorenz also discovered that there was an orderliness to this chaos (Gleick, 1987). If computer simulations were run long enough, spiral patterns emerged. These could be seen as graphic displays called strange attractors. The Lorenz Attractor looks like a three-dimensional owl face. Although the system is unpredictable, because the overall effect is dependent on the initial conditions, the system is also orderly in that it is confined to predetermined parameters. Therefore, there is order in chaos, order that is not prescribed from without, but from within.
Benoit Mandelbrot began to investigate the images that arose from non-linear equations. He based his work on previous investigations by Gaston Julia in the 1920s. Julia theorized that iterations of a rational function stayed within confines even as the number of iterations increased to infinity. Mandelbrot found that plotting those iterations resulted in images called fractals (Beck, n.d.). Like strange attractors, these
images were unpredictable. Fractal geometry, unlike Euclidian geometry, can describe chaotic systems (Burke, n.d.).
One of the properties of fractals is that they are self-similar (Devaney, 1995). That is, the images can be broken into smaller pieces that resemble the larger piece. Sierpinski's Triangle is an example. The large triangle is composed of four smaller triangles which are in turn composed of four smaller triangles, etc., as seen in Appendix A. The result is an image that looks very irregular. Clouds, coastlines, trees, protein surfaces, etc. all display this property of self-similarity and can be described using fractals.
Outcomes of the increasing sophistication of technology are the advancements being made in our understanding of human brain development and cognitive learning. This understanding confirms our need to make changes to our curriculum. Sylwester, in Neural Darwinism: A Revolutionary Brain Theory Challenges Cherished Educational Beliefs (unpublished paper), described the human brain as a "rich, layered, messy, unplanned jungle ecosystem" which requires a rich classroom environment in order to make connections between experience and genetic coding. Gardner and Hatch (1989) provided new insight regarding the ways in which people take in and process information based on multiple intelligences: change from our belief that there is only one intelligence. Our current educational practices emphasize linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. We must broaden our curriculum to address all intelligences.
Proponents of technology believe that infusing technology into the curriculum will drive curriculum and school reform by providing individuals with greater access to information (Mehlinger, 1995). Wheatley (1994) contended increased access to information transforms individuals, basing her ideas on current research into evolutionary biology. These ideas are complemented by research into the development of neural networks and the ability to process information (Sylwester, n.d.). Veneema and Gardner (1998) believed that technology can enhance learning for all students by offering a more complex curriculum that addresses these multiple intelligences. Networking computers, both in schools and to the Internet, increases student and teacher access to information, thereby increasing individuals' ability to learn.
Opponents believe that these claims are overblown. They point to former claims made by proponents of earlier technologies such as radio, film, television, and teaching machines. Proponents believed that these technologies would change teaching but they past technologies had very little impact on teaching and learning (Cuban, 1998). The reality is that the cost of technology may result in cutting programs in the arts and vocational fields that may be detrimental to students, programs that do address intelligences other than linguistic and logical-mathematical. Los Angeles Public Schools terminated the music program in order to hire a technology coordinator and in Mansfield, Massachusetts, administrators dropped teaching positions in art, music and physical education in order to allocate funds to purchase computers (Oppenheimer, 1998). The advances in cognitive research are so new that "the effect of computers on the brain remains a mystery" (Oppenheimer, 1998).
Reform in mathematics mirrors the reforms proposed by cognitive research. The 1989 NCTM standards reflect a much different attitude toward the teaching of mathematics from the traditional algorithmic approach of the 1970s and early 1980s by placing an emphasis on "doing" mathematics as well "knowing" mathematics. NCTM has defined mathematical competency as the "ability to process large sets of information" and states that ALL students have the opportunity to understand mathematical models and structures and to be able to communicate that understanding. The NCTM report discusses the need for students to use technology and understand its application, as well as being able to recognize which tool is appropriate in a given situation.
The Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences and NCTM joined forces to call for the incorporation of discrete mathematics in the school mathematics curriculum (Dossey, 1991). In the 1989 standards, NCTM further recommend that "college-intending students can investigate problem situations that arise in connection with computer validation and the application of algorithms" (Dossey, 1991). In fact, it is precisely because of the ability of computers to perform complex computations, that mathematicians first became aware of discrete mathematics. Chaos theory and fractal geometry are the result of this revolution and fall within the boundaries of a study of discrete mathematics. They provide an opportunity for students to understand that mathematics itself is evolving and changing. They also provide an opportunity for students to investigate and describe the relationship between geometry and algebra and further the understanding of dynamical systems and mathematics, including areas traditionally considered to be outside the realm of mathematics, such as art and music, thereby incorporating multiple intelligences in the mathematics curriculum. This is a branch of mathematics that can excite those students who are not motivated by traditional algorithmic mathematics.
This does not mean that traditional mathematics and algorithms can not or should not be taught. In fact, Gardiner (1991) believed that conceptual mathematics and algorithmic mathematics should not be seen as oppositional, but are actually necessary to each other and that students must develop an understanding of both in order to succeed in mathematics. However, he emphasized that mathematics must follow mathematical research, which encompass discrete mathematics and, certainly, chaos and fractals.
Advancements in computer software design provide programs that range from reinforcing basic skills to providing simulations and virtual experiences. These programs provide students an opportunity to explore a variety of scenarios and to work through problem situations. In light of what is known about how the human brain operates, experiences are vital to learning as they increase neural networks (Sylwester, n.d.). Teachers can use these programs in a variety of ways to provide these experiences,
including increasing student skills in algorithms, teaching critical thinking and problem solving, and providing experimental research (Norton, 1985).
Turkle (1998) cautioned that simulations, however helpful they may be, need monitoring and direction by teachers in order to be effective. She related her experience with a student using SimLife to understand species' interactions. The student looked at the game as a video game. When a species became extinct, the student was unaware of
why that had occurred and was unconcerned about it. She stated that it is important that students understand the underlying algorithms that produce change within the system.
The Internet greatly increases individuals' access to information, both for students and teachers. Teachers in various locales can collaborate with each other to plan lessons, create online projects and solve problems in implementing programs (Serim and Koch, 1996). Students can access data banks to perform research for projects, collaborate with each other to clarify ideas, communicate with adult experts, interact with peoples from different cultures, and produce quality projects. For mathematics teachers, this means that meeting the standards proposed by NCTM is much more manageable. However, teachers must be aware that technology alone cannot provide an enriching learning experience; teachers are responsible for monitoring student use and for providing the direction to use information in meaningful ways (Veneema & Gardner, 1998).
Technology provides the tools to alleviate many of the practical problems that have arisen when implementing curriculum reform. Dunn (1997) stated that learning styles play an important role in student achievement. Technology provides a means for responding to individual learning styles (Twigg, 1994b). Instructional material can be modularized and learning can easily take place in self-paced settings as well as in heterogeneous groupings. Technology can free the teacher from the role of lecturer to that of facilitator, providing opportunities for teachers to work one-on-one with students.
Teachers are charged with the responsibility for preparing students to enter the workplace with the skills necessary to compete and to be productive employees. Computers are an increasing aspect of this workplace. In addition, many universities and post-secondary educational institutions require computer literacy in order to complete coursework. Research has been done in a number of these areas, including socioeconomic status, racial (associated with socioeconomic status), gender, and students with disabilities.
Kirby, Jeffrey, Wilson, and Smith-Gratto (1990) have shown that students from low socioeconomic status (SES) schools have less access to computers at school than their counterparts in high SES schools. These students often do not have access to computers at home. Sutton (1991) found that there is a correlation between race and SES. Low SES schools were composed primarily of African-American and Hispanic students, while high SES schools were composed of Caucasian and Asian-American students. Schools, then, provide a means for either segregating or integrating students into society, based on computer access along divisions of economic status and race.
It is not enough, however, to merely provide technology. Educators must be cognizant of how to use that technology. Research has shown that there is a difference in how teachers use computers based on student's economic status. Kirby, Jeffrey, Wilson, and Smith-Gratto (1990) also found that teachers at low SES schools did not use computers as a problem-solving tool for their students, but preferred to use them for reinforcement of basic skills and as a reward for acceptable behavior. In contrast, teachers at high SES schools used computers to allow students to explore problems, thereby increasing critical thinking skills. If all students are to be prepared to compete in the workplace, opportunities must be provided for students to use computers in meaningful ways.
It has also been noted that much of the new software that increases graphical applications may reduce computer access for the blind (Wilson, 1994). However, in the same study performed by Kirby, Jeffrey, Wilson, and Smith-Gratto (1990), it was actually found that computer access was highest for students in gifted and special needs programs. Therefore, disabled students may actually have an advantage in terms of access to computers but not to appropriate software. This is an area that teachers and curriculum developers must consider when providing software and when using Internet applications for students with special needs.
Sutton (1992) not only investigated socioeconomic inequities, but also found females were not as likely to have access to computers as were males. Some of this inequity was the result of teacher perceptions; some was the result of preferences by female students who did not want to become involved in the behavior displayed by male students when playing aggressive games. One of the unique features of chaos theory is that it investigates relationships and relies on intuition (Gleick, 1987). As such, it offers women an opportunity to use their perspective in a way that has been denigrated by traditional mathematics. In the past, intuition was not given credence and mathematicians relied on rigorous proofs and theorems. Women have not done as well in mathematics as their male counterparts perhaps because of this reliance on theorem and proof without benefit of intuitive processing (Caporrimo, 1990).
Does all of this really mean that there will be an increase in student achievement? Mehlinger (1996) cited studies that did show an increase in student achievement, however, these studies were funded by the computer industry. There is still a lack of reliable data regarding student achievement. From Now On (1992), an electronic publication of educational technology issues, found less than 40 articles each year in an ERIC search, pointing to this as evidence of a lack of reliable data on student achievement. Most of these reported gains were not significant enough to determine if the computer learning system being studied was effective. However, President Clinton's Task Force cited numerous studies claiming that technology has led to improved student performance, including increased scores in math, language, social studies and science, as well as gains made by disabled students (1995). Baines (1998) believed that data has been fabricated to support the use of computers in schools in order to meet the demands of the business community. There is a general consensus within the academic community that there is a lack of reliable data concerning student achievement in computer learning environments.
Computers have been available for a considerable amount of time, but educators still seem to be at a loss as to how to use them to enhance learning (Rodamer & Rodamer, 1990). From Now On (1992) reported that although schools have about one computer for every nine students, teachers report little or no use of the computers. The advent of the Internet and the World Wide Web have accelerated our use of computers in the classroom, as evidenced by college course offerings via computer and web links. But the extreme benefits touted by technology advocates have not yet been seen. Rodamer and Rodamer (1990) believed that a lack of funding and community support have led to the inefficiency of the computers in schools.
In terms of student achievement in mathematics, the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), showed that fourth grade students in the US were not lagging as far behind students from other countries as were their counterparts in the eight and twelfth grades (1998). It can be argued that these fourth graders have had the advantage of the reformed mathematics curriculum which the older students have not. Consequently, the younger students performed more favorably than the older students. This is only conjecture, however, and further studies are necessary in order to show that a conceptual mathematics curriculum will lead to increased student achievement.
Today's technology is integrative and interactive and it may be discovered that this will result in a substantial increase in students' ability to make those unique connections described by Sylwester in Neural Darwinism: A Revolutionary Brain Theory Challenges Cherished Educational Beliefs (unpublished paper). Computers can be networked within classrooms and schools, and connected via the Internet to Universities, libraries and government institutions throughout the world. Computers can be interfaced with televisions, VCR's and satellites. Students are not passive with today's technology, but can pick and choose information in order to augment their personal understanding between the educational material, thereby increasing the connections between their background knowledge and new information (VanDusen & Worthen, 1995). And it has been shown that there is an increase in collaboration between teachers and students, as well as students with each other, and students show a greater interest in problem solving (O'Neil, 1996). This kind of learning is much more motivational than traditional lecture and drill and may lead to advances in student achievement. However, this is yet to be seen.
In developing curriculum, the Merrimack Education Center (1986) suggested identifying key target areas which will benefit from the use of technology and clarifying ways in which technology can improve student achievement in these areas. In developing a mathematics curriculum, technology can be used to provide simulations that engage students in a more thorough understanding of algebraic and geometric concepts.
Swetz (1984) suggested incorporating mathematics modeling into the curriculum. Computers can facilitate modeling by allowing students to change sampling parameters and view the various results (Gleick, 1987). This is particularly helpful when modeling the non-linear equations that are used to develop fractals. Matras (1984) saw technology as both a tool for performing calculations and as a means for exploring mathematics that could not be done before technology became available. It is important that students not be limited to simply using the computer to do the same old things faster and better, but that they are exposed to ways in which computers can enhance their understanding of the complexity of mathematics.
Norton (1988) suggested that computers provide educators an opportunity to provide a new model of curriculum development. This model included an emphasis on processing, thus facilitating students' experience with problem-solving. Norton also believed that technology could lead to a revitalization in how we address curriculum. Educators must move from perceiving students as passive observers of information to active participants in solving problems. This requires a shift in educators' perceptions of themselves. Teachers do not merely dispense information, but they facilitate the processing of this information. This requires a change in the goals of education as well, moving from simple skills development to developing conceptual awareness.
There are a number of models in which teachers have used computers and the Internet to enhance learning. The successful models include some simple guidelines to be used by teachers when developing units (Serim & Koch, 1996). These include:
1. provide students with your expectations
2. notify students of your objectives and goals
3. provide a topic that requires extensive research
4. help students manage the research information gained from the Internet
5. provide a topic that has real-life implications
Gardiner (1991) cautioned that a changing mathematics curriculum "must also reflect that which students and teachers can handle in a meaningful way" (p. 12 ). Gardiner recommended designing a curriculum at the introductory level based on important ideas, rather than on algorithms, and to use contexts that are familiar and natural. He again cautioned against trying to introduce too much new material and to present problems in which students could construct their own solution. He recommended a sequence of studies from grades K-12, including an investigation of iterations of simple arithmetical rules beginning at grade six and continuing through grade twelve. "One of the simplest types of dynamical systems is the iterated function" (Devaney,1991, p. 185).
There are several areas of implementation that need to be considered when designing a curriculum that uses computers and the Internet. The first is how to integrate these technologies into the existing curriculum, which have already been reported The second is targeting ways to train teachers to use both the hardware and software, as well as developing instructional units that utilize these technologies. The third is designing classrooms that make effective use of technology. Finally, student safety issues need to identified and mitigated, especially concerning the use of the Internet.
Teachers need training in the use of hardware, software, and in the development of curriculum, as well as ongoing support in these areas. These needs must be included when schools and district write technology plans, and monies must be put aside yearly to ensure that teacher training is ongoing. This training can take the form of staff development workshops, weekly collaboration meetings, and reflective journals. Mehlinger (1996) offered some valuable advice on training teachers in his example of the Virtual High School in Canada where students train teachers. This model saved money, provided ongoing support, and established a collaborative atmosphere between students and teachers. Norton in Electronic technologies, educational change, and the narrative: An experiment in graduate education (electronic publication), found that the use of narrative text in a graduate course for teachers helped expand teachers' ideas of what schools in the future would look like using technology. There is also a considerable amount of help on the Internet via multiple e-mails (known as listservs) and online conferences. Serim and Koch (1996) included an appendix of such website addresses in NetLearning:Why Teachers Use the Internet.
Designing a classroom with computers may be daunting, however. Shapiro, Roskos, and Cartwright (1995) described models for designing an effective network of computers and student work stations. One of the least expensive is a teacher work station with a computer linked to projection equipment and VCR; student workstations have networked computers and can be accessed by the teacher from the teacher workstation. Tales from the Electronic Frontier (Barnes, Shinohara, Wenn, & Sussman 1996) offered individual stories of how teachers have used technology with very limited resources. A workable and somewhat inexpensive model for beginning teachers would be a network of classroom computers with Internet access and hook-up's to VCR and TV, as well as a teacher work station with computer and projection equipment.
Teachers need to discuss the problem of safety with their students, provide students with basic rules, such as not providing personal information, including pictures, and notifying teachers of any problems (Serim & Koch, 1996). Teachers must provide supervision, as with any medium. Most importantly, students should use the Internet to search for information that will augment a project, not just to experience the Internet. This leaves little time for students to spend at objectionable sites. There are also software programs that filter out objectionable material. Serim and Koch (1996) recommended utilizing an Acceptable Use Policy (APU) contract to be signed by parents and students.
Program evaluation consists of assessing several outcomes, particularly effectiveness, acceptability and efficiency (Pratt, 1980). Pratt recommended using teacher and student interviews, in-class observations, and analysis of test results in order to determine if the criteria has been met. Anecdotal records by teachers offer an insight into those areas that need to be redesigned. Student journals offer insight into students' perceptions of the unit and difficulties they encountered (Bagley & Gallenberger, 1992).
In addition to evaluating the effectiveness, acceptability and efficiency of a program, other criteria may need to be considered. These include the needs and learning of the students, aims and objectives, instructional methods and logistics (Pratt, 1980). Feedback from parents, students, and teachers is necessary for evaluating needs and student learning. Questionnaires to participants can facilitate this. Needs assessment is vitally important to a program such as this which involves a large expenditure of monies. Logistics and instructional methods can be evaluated through classroom observations and discussions with teachers. Follow-up discussions with students who have graduated provide information concerning the overall effectiveness of the program.
Cost and obsolescence are the biggest problems facing schools when considering the integration of technology. Stoll was concerned that money is diverted from other programs, particularly the arts (O'Neil, 1996). Oppenheimer (1998) confirmed this by citing examples of school districts that have directed funds from arts, music and vocational programs to computer technologies. However, Dyrli and Kinnaman (1995) stated that 'the power (of technology) doubles every 18 months and price decreases at the same rate" (p. 105) . Like VCR's and TV's, it may be found that cost will become less of an issue. However, this has been an issue that proponents of technology refuse to discuss and which needs further consideration. The superintendent of South Harrington Union Free School District in Huntington Station, New York, funded its computer program by proposing a five year technology leasing arrangement (Lauber, 1997). This meant that as computers within the schools became obsolete, they could be replaced and the older computers were turned over to the community.
School infrastructure is an area that has not received much attention but needs to be addressed as the current infrastructure impedes reform efforts. For units that are integrative and multifaceted, students need more time and flexibility and teachers need to cover less material in more depth. This means a radical change in how schools operate and how they are constructed. This topic is outside the boundaries of this project. The burden falls to administrators who will need to experience a paradigm shift, prompted by committed and outspoken teachers.
Redefining literacy in an age of computers is a large undertaking and researchers are only beginning to realize how differently people interact with text on a computer screen as compared with the printed page and the ramifications of this on teaching and learning. The purpose of this project was to develop a curriculum in a new branch of mathematics and to present it via an electronic medium. Therefore, this issue is also outside the scope of this project except as it impacts the development of electronic documents.
Presenting a curriculum via the Internet requires an understanding of how individuals read and interpret text from a computer screen. Just as the development of the printed text leads to a change in communication from oral to written, so the computer is leading to a change in how individuals communicate through hypertext (Birkerts, 1994). Hypertext links allow readers to move from one body of information to another, thereby changing the construction of knowledge (Selfe, 1989). Reading from a computer is not necessarily sequential as it is in a printed text (Joyce, 1991). Computers combine the visual and verbal arts, incorporating graphics and sound with text (Tolva, 1995). Joyce stated that "this changes the nature of writing by giving visual expression to our acts of conceiving and manipulating topics." Computer text is temporal in nature, rather than structural (Self, 1989). This produces what Tolva (1995) described as "a disconcerting lack of physical presence", a complaint that many people express when accessing information through the Internet.
Most importantly, readers must learn a new set of conventions when reading computer text. Selfe (1989) described this as a layering of grammars. People are used to the conventions of printed text: page ratios of 2:3, immutable pages, a spatial context which leads to numbered pages and indexed information. On the other hand, she stated that the temporal nature of computer text produces a lack of spatial cues such as page numbers and length of text, fluid margins, a screen size ratio of 4:3, and there are new additions such as cursors, windows, menus, and pixels instead of type. Therefore, grammars are stacked on top of each other and individuals must change how they read, write, and make sense of text. The affect on readers is that they read more slowly, less accurately, and find it difficult to locate information or to get an overview of the material.
Lynch (1994) described the evolution of the graphic user interface (GUI) and the implications for designing computer documents. Since design of computer documents is a relatively new field there is no manual of style as is available for print documents (The Chicago Manual of Style). Successful GUI environments use icons to make operations of the computer system visible as concrete objects. Users make a mental model of how the computer operates based on the visual metaphor presented by the icon, folders for documents, trash cans to delete items, etc. This means that the user does not have to memorize rules governing the computer operations. It is self-evident through the iconic metaphor. Lynch also recommended that the locus of control remain with the user and that interfaces be designed that are forgiving of user mistakes. Setting fonts and font sizes, volume, and color cues disrupts this locus of control and disorients the user.
Computer users need cues to alert them that an action has resulted in a computer response. These must happen in a timely manner or the user assumes that there is a problem. Lynch (1994) stated that even small gaps in time can lead to confusion for the user. Finally, hypertext allows the reader to jump from screen to screen. Currently, there is no conceptual model governing the organization of material in this kind of environment. Graphic maps that provide an overview of the information and organization of the site may help alleviate this problem (Lynch, 1994). Pull down menus may also help orient the reader. In short, design elements that need consideration include:
Mathematics is considered the gateway to many well-paying occupations. Statistics show that business and industry require some proficiency in algebra and geometry for many entry level positions and many careers are closed to college freshman with less than three years of high school mathematics. In order to eliminate an elitist society with one group controlling the economy and scientific development, NCTM recommended creating opportunities for all students to access information. It becomes incumbent upon educators to use computers in order to provide a level playing field for students upon graduation from our educational institutions.
Toffler (1970) began his series of books about the future by describing how the rapid changes in our technology and its affects on our world would overwhelm everyone's psyche. In 1980, Toffler expanded his ideas and stated that some people are embracing the future, while others long for the past. This is seen by teachers in their colleagues. Some just want to teach the way they always have while others are eager to bring technology and its wonders into their classrooms. Some parents support these efforts while others bemoan the loss of basics. No matter how much educators may wish to go back, the Information Age is already here and computers are not going away. Children must be ready for this new world. Educators can help prepare our children by integrating computers into their curriculum to create a curriculum that is meaningful and real.
The following chapter discusses how the curriculum and web
sites were
designed, discuss the results of the preliminary survey of preservice
teachers,
and provide a methodology for developing curricula using electronic
documents
author: Kelleen Farrell
Copyright © 1998